Germany 1948 - Deutschland - Postal Card - Used

Description: GERMANY 1948 USED DEUTSCHLAND POSTAL CARD 100% Original Vintage Postage YOU ARE BIDDING ON: Germany 1948 - Deutschland - Postal Card - Used - 12 Mark Stamp Condition: Check the Picture, please Seller: StampLake.com Pro WORLDWIDE SHIPPING FLAT SHIPPING RATES - MULTIPLE ITEMS IN 1 PACKAGE Fast delivery with tracking number for only $7.95 * * $10.95 if more than 0.100 kg incl. pack. Save money on postage - add more than 1 products to cart and request total from the shopping card page. We will send you invoice with combined shipping price for all of your lots. Please note that we ship your order in 1-2 bussines days. Any further delays in shipment are likely the result of the delivery provider. International Shipments may take up to 3 weeks to arrive to their destination. We appreciate your patience and realistic shipping expectations for those Orders. ANY QUESTION? E-MAIL US All items are absolutely guaranteed to be genuine and as described. Buy with confidence-we are professional, full-time dealers in business for many years online on StampLake.com website. We pack and ship your purchases with care and consideration in a timely manner. With us, you can expect First-Class service and helpful consultation at no extra charge POSTAGE PRODUCT INFORMATION COLLECTING POSTAGE CARDS OF GERMANY OVER THE YEARS IS NOT ONLY AN ACQUAINTANCE WITH HISTORY, BUT ALSO A PROFITABLE INVESTMENT The history of the postal and postage stamps of Germany covers the stages corresponding to the postal systems in the territory of modern Germany: before and after the first join, during the existence of two German states (FRG and GDR until 1990) and after the second merger. The main postal operators in the entire German postal history were: Imperial Post (1871-1945), Deutsche Post (German Post, under the control of the Allied Powers: 1945-1949), German post of the GDR (1949-1990), Deutsche Bundespost (German federal post; 1949-1995), along with Deutsche Bundespost Berlin[en] (German federal post office in Berlin; 1949-1990), Deutsche Post AG (since 1995). Postage stamps have been issued in Germany since 1849. Content 1 Early history 1.1 Butchers Post 1.2 Church and city messengers 1.3 Turn-and-Taxis 1.4 German principalities 2 Further postal development and stamp issues 2.1 German Empire 2.1.1 Imperial mail 2.1.2 German colonies 2.1.3 German post abroad 2.1.4 Occupation of territories in World War I 2.2 Weimar Republic 2.2.1 Reichspost 2.2.2 Plebiscite territories 2.2.3 Danzig 2.2.4 Memel 2.2.5 Saarland 2.3 Nazi Germany 2.3.1 Post of the Third Reich 2.3.2 Sudetenland/Bohemia and Moravia 2.3.3 Occupation of territories in World War II 2.4 Partitioned Germany 2.4.1 Local releases 2.4.2 Allied occupation 2.4.3 German Federal Post Office West Berlin 2.4.4 German Post Office of the GDR 2.4.5 Deutsche Bundespost 2.5 United Germany 3 Summary 4 Propaganda and fantasy editions 5 Development of philately 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Literature 9 Links Early history Butchers Post The butchers' mail[de] is considered the first international post of the Middle Ages[1]. So, in some cities of southern Germany, the butcher's guild (German: Metzger) was charged with the transportation of letters and parcels, in return for which he was exempted from communal duties. The so-called "butcher's post" thus formed in some places acquired the significance of a state institution (in Württemberg) [2]. The butchers' guild organized the courier delivery of correspondence on horseback: upon the arrival of the mail, the sound of a horn was heard, announcing this, thanks to which the generally accepted postal emblem arose. The butcher's post arose in the 12th century and operated until 1637[3], when the Thurn y Taxis family became the monopoly of mail delivery[1]. Church and city messengers In the Middle Ages, the Church most of all needed the exchange of information, both because its structure rested on the beginning of centralization, and because for a long time it was the only bearer of the mental life of peoples. The archives of church institutions and the regests of the Roman curia testify that even at the very beginning of the Middle Ages there was a lively exchange of messages between the head of the Catholic hierarchy and its members. In the lands of the German spiritual order, a special administration of messengers or couriers arose for this purpose, and stations were established for changing horses[2]. With the development of city liberties, one of the most important means of communication in the Middle Ages was the institution of city messengers, which existed almost everywhere since the 14th century, but was especially developed in large shopping centers in Germany. From the numerous regulations that have come down to us for city messengers (in Cologne, Mainz, Nordhausen - in the 14th century, in Strasbourg - in 1443, in Augsburg - in 1552, in Breslau - in 1573, etc.) it is clear that they were under the jurisdiction of the city council, to which under oath they were obliged to obey. They did not receive a salary either from the community, or from individual corporations or merchant guilds. Coming out of the city on certain days, they delivered on horseback or on foot at the appointed time the correspondence of the city government, as well as letters and parcels from the townspeople, from whom they charged a fee. The institute of urban messengers received a strong and widespread development thanks to the unions of cities on the Rhine and in Lower Germany. The messengers of the Rhenish city union maintained the correct messages from Cologne and Mainz via Frankfurt to Nuremberg. The messengers of the Hanseatic cities were famous for their accuracy in meeting deadlines, maintaining communications between Hamburg, Bremen, Amsterdam and Antwerp, as well as eastward through Stettin, Danzig and Königsberg up to Riga. In southern Germany, the first place was occupied by the messengers of Augsburg; in addition to lines to Nuremberg (thrice a week), Lindau and Regensburg, they maintained communications with Italy; they arrived in Venice via the Brenner in eight days[2]. Thurn and Taxis Franz von Taxis on a FRG stamp, 1967 (Sc #971) Main article: Thurn y Taxis Post By the end of the 15th century, the name of the post office in Germany began to mean suna set of institutions established by the State or under the control of the State for the transmission of both government and private correspondence and for the transport of passengers. The first experience of organizing mail in this sense of the word on a broad international basis was made by members of the Taxis family from Bergamo, who took upon themselves the support of communications between the Habsburg possessions [2]. In 1497, on behalf of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, Franz von Taxis established a post office that replaced the messengers who carried state correspondence[4]. The branches of this mail organized in Germany and other European countries rendered great services in the development of postal messages [2]: within its framework, a horse relay system was created, which reduced the time for transporting mail and made the time of its delivery predictable. Thereafter, the house of Thurn y Taxis, which used your imperial colors of yellow and black, retained the postal privilege for many centuries. In 1650, the Thurn y Taxis post office used the first horse-drawn carriages in Europe since ancient Rome. Thurn und Taxis stamp for the North German states (1865) Thurn und Taxis stamp for the North German states (1865) Thurn-and-Taxis stamp for the South German states (1859) Thurn-and-Taxis stamp for the South German states (1859) The Thurn-et-Taxis family lost its monopoly when Napoleon granted the Confederation of the Rhine the right to carry out postal communications. The Thurn und Taxis postal service continued to operate and even issued its own postage stamps, but after the creation of the North German Confederation by Prussia, the owners of the Thurn und Taxis post office had to sell their postal privilege in 1867[6]. German principalities Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Bavaria, Postal history and postage stamps of Baden, Postal history and postage stamps of Bergedorf, Postal history and postage stamps of Brunswick, and Postal history and postage stamps of Hamburg Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Hanover, Postal history and postage stamps of Helgoland, Postal history and postage stamps of Lübeck, Postal history and postage stamps of Mecklenburg, and Postal history and postage stamps of Oldenburg Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Prussia, Postal history and postage stamps of Saxony, and Postal history and postage stamps of the North German Confederation The idea of a postal regalia, that is, the exclusive right of the government to maintain postal institutions within the state territory, was first put forward at the end of the 16th century, and in the 17th century it began to be put into practice. The first of the German sovereigns to establish a government post office and recognize the nature of a monopoly behind it was the great Elector Friedrich Wilhelm (1646). His example was followed by other significant imperial ranks. At the same time, the content of the mail began to be seen not only as a right, but also as an obligation of governments. Already at the beginning of the 18th century, some statesmen (for example, Friedrich Wilhelm I in Prussia) abandoned their fiscal views on the post office and saw its task in reducing the cost of postal rates and making postal messages as accessible to the population as possible. In contrast to France, where the forwarding of letters (French poste aux lettres) was declared a state monopoly, but along with government mail there were private enterprises for the transport of passengers (messageries), in the larger German states, the activities of government mail covered both the forwarding of letters and goods, as well as the transport of passengers. The government post office of Saxony, Braununschweig-Hanover, Hesse, and especially Brandenburg-Prussia was famous for its expedient organization. From 1655 on the main Prussian line Kleve-Memel, mail departed twice a week; from Königsberg to Berlin, she arrived within four days, from Königsberg to Kleve - in 10 days. It was unusual speed for that time. In addition to branches to Hamburg, Stettin, Leipzig and Breslau, postal communications were maintained in the west with Holland, in the east with Warsaw and the Swedish post in Riga. In the matter of transporting passengers, Prussia, however, was already surpassed by countries with more comfortable roads at the end of the 18th century. All the more struck contemporaries the success achieved by Prussia in 1821, when the so-called him were established. Nagler'sche Schuellposten, with traveling carriages[2]. A big step forward in the organization of mail was the Austro-German Postal Union [en], concluded in 1850 between Prussia, Austria, other German states and the Taxis postal administration on the basis of a uniform and uniform collection of postage. This union ceased to exist after the war of 1866, but during the years 1867-1873, first the North German Confederation, and then the German Empire, concluded a series of postal conventions imbued with the same spirit [2]. Prior to German unification in 1871, individual German principalities and cities began to issue their own postage stamps. The first was Bavaria, which issued the "Black Unity" on November 1, 1849. After this marki released: Baden (1851), Bergedorf (1861), Braunschweig (1852), Bremen (1855), Hamburg (1859), Hanover (1850), Helgoland (1867), Lübeck (1859), Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1856), Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1864), Oldenburg (1852), Prussia (1850), Saxony (1850), Schleswig-Holstein (1850) and Württemberg (1851). Also, not being a state entity, the Thurn and Taxis post had the right to issue postage stamps and transport mail and issued their own stamps (1852). In 1868, the northern German principalities merged into the North German Confederation and merged their postal services into the North German Postal District[de]. After the unification, Bavaria and Württemberg retained the postal right to continue issuing postage stamps until March 31, 1920[7]. Further postal development and stamp issues German Empire This period in German postal history corresponds to the united Kaiser state that existed from 1871 to 1918 and issued its own postage stamps. Imperial Post Main article: Imperial mail The unification of mail in the territory of the North German Union was carried out from 1868. When the German Empire was founded, the latter took over the postal business in all the states that were part of the empire, with the exception of Bavaria and Württemberg, which retained independent postal administrations. The postal business was left to imperial legislation, which also applied to Bavaria and Württemberg. The domestic legislation of the latter regulated only the rates for postal items that did not go beyond their territory[2]. The Deutsche Reichspost ("German Imperial Post") was officially established on May 4, 1871. The central office of the imperial-German post was the Imperial Post Office (Reichspostamt), subordinate to the imperial chancellor and run by the Secretary of State for Postal Affairs [2]. At first, the postage stamps of the North German Confederation continued to be used in post offices, until the first stamps of the imperial post appeared in circulation on January 1, 1872[8]. Heinrich von Stefan, a well-known postal expert[2], the inventor of the postcard and the founder of the General Postal Union, was appointed the first postmaster general of the imperial post[9]. According to G. von Stefan, out of 600 million letters sent in 1873 by German mail, 15% were correspondence from government agencies, 5% - from science and art, 45% - from family and private contacts, and only 35 % - to the share of trade and industry. In addition, in the same year, 230 ml. copies of periodicals. In 1873, Germany took the initiative to establish a uniform, regardless of the distance and the actual weight of the parcel, a cheap tariff in relation to light parcels that did not exceed 5 kg [2]. The history of the Universal Postal Union began in 1874, when the first Universal Postal Congress[de] took place in Bern, which was attended by representatives of 22 states, including Germany. The basic principles proposed by Germany - the unity of the postal territory, complete freedom and possible gratuitous transit, the unity of the postage and the principle of balancing, and not the distribution of postage - were partly accepted entirely, partly served as the subject of various kinds of compromises. On October 9, 1874, the Universal Postal Convention was signed, which applied to Germany and other countries that acceded to this agreement[2]. In the same year, the operation of postal orders [de] (German: Postauftrag) was introduced in Germany for the first time, which consisted in the fact that the post office took upon itself the collection of payment from the debtor on bills, invoices, invoices and similar documents and forwarding them to the creditor by ownership . At the same time, the post office, at the request of the creditor-sender, not only presented bills of exchange to receive payment to the debtor-addressee, but, if necessary, subjected them to a protest in the generally established manner. The post office also took on another type of assignment: it presented bills to the drawee for acceptance and, in the absence of acceptance, was obliged to make a protest. Later, at the Lisbon III Congress of the UPU in 1885, Germany and the states in which the operation of postal orders is carried out concluded an agreement among themselves on the extension of this operation to their mutual relations. With the advent of the telegraph and its recognition as an indispensable means of communication, in Germany the postal business was combined with the telegraph business, to the great benefit of both departments, which was followed by almost all other states. This happened in 1875, when the management of telegraphs began to be concentrated in the Imperial Post Office [2]. In subsequent years, the entire territory of the German Imperial Post was divided into 40 postal and telegraph districts, which were administered by chief post directors. They included advisers for the execution of orders, architects (Postbauräte) for the construction of postal and telegraph buildings, and postal inspectors forrevision production. Wherever only the vastness of communications did not require special telegraph and telephone institutions, the latter were connected with post offices (Postämter), which, according to the significance of the locality, were divided into three categories. The fourth category of postal institutions were postal agencies (Postagenturen), which were entrusted not to a special official, but to one of the local inhabitants (postal agent), who did not even leave his private occupations. The transportation of mail by rail was managed by 33 traveling post offices (Bahnpostämter). In significant villages where there were no post offices, auxiliary post offices (German: Posthilfsstelle) were set up, which sold postage stamps, received and issued simple correspondence, and in some places received internal telegrams [2]. At the 4th UPU Congress in Vienna in 1891[de], Germany joined, among other countries, an agreement whereby governments mutually undertook to deliver periodicals published within their territories at the same prices as to domestic subscribers, with a surcharge only possible transit costs. In addition, Germany had concluded separate agreements with France, England and the United States on the observance in mutual relations of the same regulations in relation to the periodicals of such countries that had not yet acceded to the international convention on the newspaper operation[2]. In 1893, the total number of mailboxes in Germany reached 95,149 units, against 24,703 in 1871[2]. According to information about the number and activities of postal institutions in 1894, in Germany there were[2]: 30,346 post offices, or one post office per 17.8 km² and per 1,629 inhabitants; 3,656,920,000 shipments, including: 1 312 154 thousand letters, 448,124 thousand open letters, 1,640,486 thousand printed works, 99,695 thousand postal orders and 139,932 thousand parcels. There were an average of 68.8 postal items per inhabitant. The excess of the income of the postal department over expenses, in terms of the rubles of the Russian Empire of that time, amounted to 11,029,605 rubles [2]. The exemplary organization of the German post office owed a lot to G. von Stefan, during whose administration the number of post offices increased from 4,520 in 1870 to 31,786 in 1895 (with Bavaria and Württemberg), the number of letters sent - from 857 million (including open 7 million letters) to 2360 million (including 443 million open letters), the number of forwarded newspapers - from 191 million to 890 million, the number of forwarded parcels - from 7 million to 443 million, the number of international shipments - from 68 million to 132 million[ 2]. By the end of the 19th century, Germany remained one of the few countries where the post office also took over the transportation of passengers in areas where there were no railways. In addition to their direct purpose, the German postal institutions also served as bodies of state insurance for workers, performing in this role a lot of work on receiving and making payments; they also sold stamps and bills of exchange. To carry out its extensive functions, the German Imperial Post had a staff of 148,961 in 1895. Postal agents by the end of January 1898 consisted of 8335 people, including 1449 innkeepers, 1375 artisans, 1298 farmers, 1174 merchants and 1084 teachers. Poste restante mail was kept at German post offices for one month, and valuable packages abroad for two months, after which it was dealt with as unreleased mail. Measures were also taken to combat the inaccuracy of senders who deliver correspondence with illegible addresses, for which the pupils of German public schools practiced the correct inscription of addresses[2]. In Germany, a system of postal orders was introduced, in which the transfer was sent by official order directly from the postal place of departure to the postal destination, which paid the money to the addressee at home or called him to receive the money by summons. The maximum amount for which postal orders were allowed was not very large and did not exceed 400 German marks. Recipients who received many transfers and had a checking account with the Reichsbank could have the corresponding amounts transferred to their account instead of being paid out in cash. In 1905, Germany entered into an agreement on the mutual exchange of postal money orders with Russia[2]. According to the International Bureau of the UPU for 1903[10], Germany ranked third in the world in terms of the density of the postal network, with one post office per 14 square meters. km. The imperial post was second only to the United States in terms of the size of its staff (231 thousand postal workers), in the number of kilometers traveled by mail per year (346 million) and in the number of written items of internal correspondence (4 billion, or 5.5 billion, if we include here those delivered by mail newspapers). With regard to the frequency of postal communication, Germany is far ahead of other countries: for every kilometerrailway mail route here accounted for the annual work of 4600 km. In Germany, there were the largest number of foreign letters in the world: from there in 1903 266 million written items were sent to other countries, and 242 million lengths of postal routes were received. Germany also significantly outperformed other countries in domestic (210 million items) and international (11.8 million items sent and 7.2 million received) exchange of parcels, the value of mailed letters and parcels with a declared value (24 billion francs) and the volume postal orders (13 billion francs). In Germany, postal orders worth 900 million francs were completed, that is, more than all other states (except Belgium) in which this kind of service was installed[2]. The basic rate for forwarding simple closed letters in Germany at that time was 10 pfennigs. At the same time, 15 g was accepted as a weight unit, and letters that had a greater weight, up to the maximum weight (250 g), were paid only at a double rate. Unpaid or not fully paid letters, although they were forwarded, a uniform surcharge of 10 pfennigs was made for the forwarding of an unfranked letter; the share of such letters was 2.7% of the total number of letters. For open letters, there was a reduced fee of 5 pfennigs. For parcels, a higher weight limit was established, which for printed works reached 1 kg, and for factory samples - up to 250 g. regardless of weight, 10 pfennigs. Special increased rates could be levied on written correspondence, for example, for letters that, on the basis of a preliminary agreement, were issued to addressees at the station immediately upon the arrival of the train (Bahnhofsbriefe). The basic rate for closed international letters, although twice the basic rate established for internal correspondence, still did not reach the maximum normal rate, amounting to only 20 pfennigs for every 15 g [2]. The most common stamps of the Reichspost were stamps with an allegorical design "Germany". These stamps were issued from 1900 to 1922, making them the longest-serving series in German philately, with the most significant design change[en] during this time being the change of the inscription "Reichspost" ("Imperial Post ”) to the “Deutsche Post” (“German Post”). Colonies of Germany Stamp of the Caroline Islands from the series "Yacht Hohenzollern" (Mi #19) Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of the German colonies At an early stage (circa 1887 or 1888), the postage was paid by ordinary German postage stamps of that period, so stamps that passed the post in the German colonies can only be identified by the impression of the postmark of the corresponding post office. Such brands are known as "Vorläufer" ("predecessors")[11]. At the next stage, ordinary postage stamps overprinted with the name of the territory were used. In general, by 1896 and later, overprinted stamps were issued by the German authorities for all colonies: German South West Africa, German New Guinea, Kiautschou, Togo, Samoa, Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, German East Africa and Cameroon. Around 1900, for various colonial territories, the Hohenzollern Yacht series was issued with the same pattern - the image of the imperial ship of the same name. After the loss of Germany's colonies during the First World War, overprinted yacht stamps were temporarily used by the new masters of the colonies. German Post Abroad Main article: German post office abroad For postal communications with overseas countries, Germany had government-subsidized postal and steamship lines that supported German postal communications with the Far East, Australia and East Africa. Germany established several post offices. agencies in Asia, Polynesia and Africa[2]. In particular, the German Empire opened post offices in certain cities of Morocco, Turkey and China. Postage stamps issued and mailed there can be identified by the imprint of a postmark, or by an overprint, which may indicate the denomination in the local currency and the name of the country[12]. Occupation of territories in the First World War During the First World War, the German authorities issued postage stamps in the countries occupied by Germany: in Belgium, Poland, Romania, as well as in some areas of the western and eastern front[13]. Weimar Republic Germany's first airmail stamp, 1919 (Sc #C1) Reichspost Germany's first charity postage stamp, 1919 (Sc #B1) The Imperial Post continued to operate as a state organization after the declaration of Germany as a republic. In 1919, the Reichspost issued its first commemorative, airmail, and charity stamps[14]. On the first charity postage stamp inrailway mail route here accounted for the annual work of 4600 km. In Germany, there were the largest number of foreign letters in the world: from there in 1903 266 million written items were sent to other countries, and 242 million lengths of postal routes were received. Germany also significantly outperformed other countries in domestic (210 million items) and international (11.8 million items sent and 7.2 million received) exchange of parcels, the value of mailed letters and parcels with a declared value (24 billion francs) and the volume postal orders (13 billion francs). In Germany, postal orders worth 900 million francs were completed, that is, more than all other states (except Belgium) in which this kind of service was installed[2]. The basic rate for forwarding simple closed letters in Germany at that time was 10 pfennigs. At the same time, 15 g was accepted as a weight unit, and letters that had a greater weight, up to the maximum weight (250 g), were paid only at a double rate. Unpaid or not fully paid letters, although they were forwarded, a uniform surcharge of 10 pfennigs was made for the forwarding of an unfranked letter; the share of such letters was 2.7% of the total number of letters. For open letters, there was a reduced fee of 5 pfennigs. For parcels, a higher weight limit was established, which for printed works reached 1 kg, and for factory samples - up to 250 g. regardless of weight, 10 pfennigs. Special increased rates could be levied on written correspondence, for example, for letters that, on the basis of a preliminary agreement, were issued to addressees at the station immediately upon the arrival of the train (Bahnhofsbriefe). The basic rate for closed international letters, although twice the basic rate established for internal correspondence, still did not reach the maximum normal rate, amounting to only 20 pfennigs for every 15 g [2]. The most common stamps of the Reichspost were stamps with an allegorical design "Germany". These stamps were issued from 1900 to 1922, making them the longest-serving series in German philately, with the most significant design change[en] during this time being the change of the inscription "Reichspost" ("Imperial Post ”) to the “Deutsche Post” (“German Post”). Colonies of Germany Stamp of the Caroline Islands from the series "Yacht Hohenzollern" (Mi #19) Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of the German colonies At an early stage (circa 1887 or 1888), the postage was paid by ordinary German postage stamps of that period, so stamps that passed the post in the German colonies can only be identified by the impression of the postmark of the corresponding post office. Such brands are known as "Vorläufer" ("predecessors")[11]. At the next stage, ordinary postage stamps overprinted with the name of the territory were used. In general, by 1896 and later, overprinted stamps were issued by the German authorities for all colonies: German South West Africa, German New Guinea, Kiautschou, Togo, Samoa, Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, German East Africa and Cameroon. Around 1900, for various colonial territories, the Hohenzollern Yacht series was issued with the same pattern - the image of the imperial ship of the same name. After the loss of Germany's colonies during the First World War, overprinted yacht stamps were temporarily used by the new masters of the colonies. German Post Abroad Main article: German post office abroad For postal communications with overseas countries, Germany had government-subsidized postal and steamship lines that supported German postal communications with the Far East, Australia and East Africa. Germany established several post offices. agencies in Asia, Polynesia and Africa[2]. In particular, the German Empire opened post offices in certain cities of Morocco, Turkey and China. Postage stamps issued and mailed there can be identified by the imprint of a postmark, or by an overprint, which may indicate the denomination in the local currency and the name of the country[12]. Occupation of territories in the First World War During the First World War, the German authorities issued postage stamps in the countries occupied by Germany: in Belgium, Poland, Romania, as well as in some areas of the western and eastern front[13]. Weimar Republic Germany's first airmail stamp, 1919 (Sc #C1) Reichspost Germany's first charity postage stamp, 1919 (Sc #B1) The Imperial Post continued to operate as a state organization after the declaration of Germany as a republic. In 1919, the Reichspost issued its first commemorative, airmail, and charity stamps[14]. On the first charity postage stamp inIn 1919, a new tariff was overprinted for the benefit of war invalids ((Sc #B1)). In 1923, during a period of hyperinflation, the Reichspost issued postage stamps in denominations of up to 50 billion marks. The most common stamp series then were the famous Germans series, and then the stamps with the Hindenburg. The first stamp of the prized German Zeppelin series appeared in 1928 ((Sc #C35-37)). Plebiscite territories Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Allenstein, Postal history and postage stamps of Marienwerder, and Postal history and postage stamps of Silesia After the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, plebiscites were held in some territories to determine their fate. Postage stamps were issued in these territories for a short period of time: Allenstein and Marienwerder, Schleswig and Upper Silesia[15]. Danzig Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of Danzig Following the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, the Free City of Danzig became an independent unit. At first, the use of German postage stamps continued, on which, after some time, the overprint “Danzig” (“Danzig”) was made [16]. Danzig then issued the original postage stamps, which were in circulation until 1939. In addition, the Polish Post (Poczta Polska) had a post office in Danzig and issued Polish postage stamps overprinted with "Port Gdansk" ("Port of Gdansk"). On the original stamps of Danzig, 133 overprints were made over the entire period of circulation, of which 51 were for franking official correspondence; 49 - by changing the face value of the brand; 16 - commemorative; 14 - occupation; 3 for charitable fundraising for the Winter Welfare Fund. The first overprint of DM (Dienst Marke transl. from German. Service mark) was made on August 25, 1921 on a series of definitive stamps of 14 denominations. Intended for franking official correspondence, they were in circulation until September 30, 1923. The last overprint of Deutsches Reich (translated from German German Reich) was made on September 28, 1939 on 14 stamp values during the establishment of German administration in Danzig in September 1939, indicating the new denomination in Reichspfennig (German Reichspfennig) or Reichsmark (German Reichsmark). Reichsmark). It was in circulation until December 31, 1940 [17]. memel Hyperinflationary postage stamp, 1923 (Sc #298) According to the results of the Treaty of Versailles, the Memel region (Memelland, Klaipeda region) was allocated. Initially German, then French and Lithuanian postage stamps with appropriate overprints were used. Memel issued his own stamps between 1920 and 1923, when the territory was annexed by Lithuania[18]. The original stamps were overprinted, with a total of 67 stamps overprinted, all with the new denomination in Lithuanian Centų or Centai cents and Litas Litas. The first overprint was made on April 16, 1923, the last on December 15 of the same year[17]. Saar Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of the Saarland In accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, the territory of the Saar was under the control of the League of Nations. There, in the period from 1920 to 1935, when the Saar was returned to Germany following the results of the plebiscite, their own postage stamps were issued. The first stamps were the postage stamps of Germany and Bavaria with overprints. After World War II, the Saarland came under French administration and issued its own postage stamps from 1947-1956. After a referendum, the Saar was returned to Germany in 1956, but continued to issue its postage stamps until 1959[19]. Nazi Germany See also Illustrated list of postage stamps of the Third Reich[en] Post of the Third Reich Postage stamp of Nazi Germany: Chancellor and Fuhrer of the Greater German Reich, Adolf Hitler (1944) During Nazi Germany (1933-1945), the Reichspost continued to function as a state monopoly under the auspices of the Reich Post Office, with the design of postage stamps and the stamp program heavily influenced by National Socialist propaganda. Miniatures with the image of Hitler's head became widely used postage stamps, and a large number of postal-charity stamps were issued. In the last year before the end of the war, the inscription on postage stamps "Deutsches Reich" ("German Empire") was changed to "Grossdeutsches Reich" ("Great German Empire"). Starting in 1942, military field mail stamps were issued for the troops. On July 25, 1941, the world's first two-digit postal code system was introduced[20]. This system was first used for parcels, and then was extended to all postal items. Sudetenland/Bohemia and Moravia In accordance with the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland became a German territory in 1938. Initially, overprinted Czechoslovakian postage stamps were used at local post offices before German postage stamps went on sale. In 1939, Nazi Germany occupied part of the Czech Republic, first overprintedon Czech-Slovak stamps, and then issued postage stamps for "Bohemia and Moravia" until 1945! Deutsches Reich is the name of the German national state between 1871 and 1945. Initially not congruent, the name also became the constitutional designation of Germany. After Austria's "annexation" in March 1938, the term "Greater German Reich" came into propagandistic and official use. A Führer Decree in June 1943 instructed state institutions to use this designation in the future. The term German Empire is also occasionally used to describe the German part of the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806): a supranational, ultimately supranational, dominion structure that was established from the 15th/16th Century with the addition "German nation"[1] and in which no monarchical central authority had developed.[2] In 1848, during the March Revolution, a "German Reich" was created as a German federal state. Its Reich government and with it the provisional constitution was recognized by the Bundestag of the German Confederation.[3] In the spring of 1849, however, the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV had the revolution crushed, and the drafted constitution was not able to gain acceptance. In the German Empire of the 19th and 20th centuries, a general distinction is made between several periods: the monarchy of the German Empire (1871-1918), the pluralistic, semi-presidential democracy of the Weimar Republic (1918/19-1933) and the dictatorship of the Nazi state in the time of National Socialism (1933 to 1945). In the following transitional period of occupied Germany until 1949, the term was already largely out of use. In the initially controversial question of whether the German Reich continued to exist after 1945, the thesis that the German Reich had survived the collapse of 1945 prevailed from the end of the 1940s and finally with the judgment of the Federal Constitutional Court of July 31, 1973. The Federal Republic is not its "legal successor", but rather identical as a state with the state "German Reich"; in terms of spatial extent, the old Federal Republic of Germany was “partially identical” (partially congruent) until 1990. From the formula of the spatial partial identity followed: "The GDR belongs to Germany" (BVerfGE 36, 17), but not to the Federal Republic. Table of contents 1 Empire founded in 1871 2 constitutional history 3 story 4 heads of state and government 5 Origin of the term 6 Term after 1945 7 Questions of international law and constitutional law after 1945 8 web links 9 notes Empire founded in 1871 → Main article: Founding of the German Empire Vivat volume for Bismarck The German Reich came into being formally on January 1, 1871 when a common constitution came into force.[4] The constitutional text corresponded to the text of the North German federal constitution in the version according to the Baden-Hessian treaty.[5] After the southern German states - Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse - had decided with the November treaties of 1870 to found a German Confederation by joining the North German Confederation, it was agreed on December 10th to replace the designation "German Confederation" with "German Reich" and to give the "Federal Presidium" the title "German Emperor".[6] As a national state, the Reich included all Germans, with the exception of German-Austrians, Luxembourgers and Liechtensteiners. Austria had expressly agreed to the expansion of the North German Confederation across the Main line on December 25, 1870, thereby recognizing the Reich under international law.[7] The imperial title for the Prussian king and the founding of the empire were staged as a matter for the princes. This is also how the Prussian king proclaimed himself emperor on January 18, 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles.[8] This date was celebrated as the day on which the Reich was founded, but was not declared a public holiday, since on January 18 the coronation of Frederick I as Prussian king was commemorated. Rather, the important holidays of the German Empire were the Kaiser's birthday and Sedantag.[9] After the first all-German Reichstag elections, Kaiser Wilhelm I opened the Reichstag on March 21, 1871. The Reichstag edited the incomplete constitution, the draft of which was available on April 16, was promulgated on April 20, and came into force on May 4, 1871.[10] constitutional history The federal flag of the North German Confederation became the imperial flag The North German Confederation, founded in 1866 as a military alliance, received a constitutional law on July 1, 1867. This constitution of the North German Confederation had formed it into a monarchical federal state under Prussian leadership. The accession of the southern German states at the end of 1870 did not create a new state in terms of state and constitutional law, but only a constitution of the German Confederation (November Constitution of December 31, 1870) was passed. Special regulations wereels for certain states (reservation rights, such as a separate army for Bavaria in times of peace). Added to this was the decision of the Federal Council and Reichstag in December 1870 to also name the Bund Deutsches Reich and the Bundespraesidium Deutscher Kaiser. Article 80 of the constitution of December 31, 1870 declared a large number of North German federal laws to be laws of the German Confederation. The subsequent constitution of the German Reich of April 16, 1871 was based on this (new) constitution. Above all, some designations were changed, mostly from federation to empire. In addition, there was no longer any Art. 80 that would have mentioned the federal laws again. Formally, the empire was a league of princes, which is why the Federal Council, which represented the member states, was its highest state body. In fact, the main powers rested with the Presidium of the Confederation, which the King of Prussia held under the title 'German Emperor'. The Kaiser appointed the Reich Chancellor, who chaired the Bundesrat, managed its affairs[11] and was the only Reich Minister responsible. This constitution then applied for almost fifty years without any significant changes. The fact that the Kaiser transferred his authority to issue orders to the highest command authorities of the field army to the General Staff in August 1914 led to a centralized bureaucracy at the expense of the Reich leadership and the federal states, which was tantamount to a military government. It was only with the October Reform of 1918 that the Reichstag was given the right to vote out the Reich Chancellor and responsibility for acts of the imperial command and command of political importance.[12] On November 9, 1918, the last imperial chancellor, Max von Baden, handed over the chancellorship to SPD chairman Friedrich Ebert. This was not constitutional, but Ebert was considered a guarantor of peaceful development until the state was reorganized. On November 10, 1918, a revolutionary government called the Council of People's Representatives took office, with Ebert and USPD politician Hugo Haase as chairman. The law on the provisional power of the Reich passed on February 10, 1919 regulated the most important future constitutional organs and described their responsibilities in the transition phase from the German Empire to the Weimar Republic. Political system of the Weimar Republic The Weimar Constitution, promulgated on August 14, 1919, then replaced the Act on Provisional Imperial Power. With it, the German Reich became a federative republic with a mixed presidential and parliamentary system of government. According to the Weimar Constitution, the German Reich had the Reichstag, the Reich President, the Reich government, the Reichsrat and the State Court of Justice as state organs. The office of Reich President was endowed with far-reaching powers. His position was comparable to that of the strong head of state in the constitutional monarchy ("substitute emperor"). The Reich President appointed and dismissed the members of the Reich government, represented the people, appointed judges (at the suggestion of the Reichsrat) and had supreme command of the Reichswehr. In particular, Articles 25 (dissolution of the Reichstag) and 48 (right to suspend fundamental rights if order is endangered) clearly show his strong position of power. The Weimar Constitution formally continued to apply even after the NSDAP seized power on January 30, 1933. However, it was soon largely overridden by laws and ordinances that broke the constitution, first by the Reich President’s ordinance for the protection of people and state, better known as the “Reichstag Fire Ordinance” of February 28, 1933 August 1, 1934, the law passed on the head of state of the German Reich, whose § 1 combined “the office of the Reich President [...] with that of the Reich Chancellor” and stated that with the death of Paul von Hindenburg, all “previous powers of the Reich President were transferred to the Führer and Chancellor Adolf Hitler” would have passed. Article 4 of the Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich of January 30, 1934 regulated the transfer of constitutional power to the Reich government (and thus the elimination of its reservation that the Reichsrat and Reichstag remain untouched).[13] Even after the unconditional surrender of the German armed forces on May 7th and 8th, 1945 and the assumption of supreme government power in Germany by the Allied Control Council on June 5th, 1945, the Weimar Constitution formally remained in place, but was still inoperative. Story The Munich Agreement of 1938 represents the last territorial status of the German Reich contractually agreed with other powers (but not with the affected Czechoslovakia).en was an act contrary to international law, which was tolerated because of the appeasement policy of the western powers. The history of the German Reich is divided into three or, if you include the occupation period,[14] specifically four sections: 1871-1918 German Empire under Bismarck's imperial constitution 1871-1890 time of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck 1890-1918 Wilhelmine Era and First World War 1919-1933 Weimar Republic under the Weimar Imperial Constitution 1933–1945 period of National Socialism with the NS state as the system of domination; propagandistic designation until 1939: "Third Reich"; official state name from 1943: "Greater German Reich"[15] 1945–1949 divided into zones of occupation by the main victorious powers of the Second World War, henceforth referred to as “Germany as a whole”[16] and the Allied Control Council, the supreme government authority, as a whole and the military governors in the individual zones as a trusteeship (→ post-war Germany, Germany 1945 to 1949). When the Spanish Queen Isabella II was overthrown in 1868, the Hereditary Prince Leopold of the Catholic Princely House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, at Bismarck's instigation, offered his services as future king in the Spanish succession question. Because of the violent reaction in France, he immediately withdrew his candidacy. Nevertheless, the diplomatic conflict escalated into a national issue, since both sides did not want or could not endure a loss of reputation. France felt threatened in its prestige or even in its security and tried to militarily prevent the election of the king.[17] France felt challenged by the Ems dispatch and declared war on Prussia in July 1870. The Franco-Prussian War was successful for the German armies, they occupied the French capital Paris in January 1871. Bismarck used the war to achieve his goal of uniting the German states against a common enemy. Beginning in 1884, the German Empire acquired several colonies in Africa, China and Oceania, which were designated as "protected areas". The question of their constitutional affiliation could not be answered without contradiction: the German colonies were not considered part of the Reich, their non-European residents were denied German citizenship; even children from mixed marriages were often denied it. Nevertheless, the so-called natives were subject to German state authority. The prevailing opinion was that the German colonies were foreign countries to which they could not lay claim to power. For the empire, however, they were not inland, but "objects of imperial rule".[18] After the military defeat of the German Reich in World War II, Germany was occupied by British, French, American and Soviet troops in 1945. The areas east of the Oder and Neisse and the towns of Swinemünde (according to the provisions of the Potsdam Agreement) and Stettin to the west of this line, together with a part of its hinterland (in total about a quarter of the area of 1937) were effectively separated from the Reich and, according to the Potsdam Agreement , "temporarily" placed under Polish or Soviet administration - but ultimately de facto annexed. In the years that followed, the German population living in the eastern regions, insofar as they had not already fled to the west in the course of the war, were largely expelled in violation of international law. With the restoration of the Republic of Austria from April 27, 1945 (declaration of independence) - until 1955 under the four occupying powers, then as a sovereign state -, the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic in 1949, the German Reich actually heard from a historical point of view (as a result complete military suppression and military occupation), but by no means de jure to exist: The Weimar Constitution was also after the German capitulation in May 1945, which as a military act could not decisively affect the legal substance of the German state authority,[16] and the takeover sovereignty over Germany by the four occupying powers was not officially abolished and the German Reich was not dissolved. The consequences of this de jure continued existence are explained in the section on constitutional issues after 1945. See also: History of Germany heads of state and government → Main articles: List of heads of state of the German Reich, List of heads of government of the North German Confederation and the German Reich and Reich Chancellor emergence of the term The use of the term German Empire linked to the Holy Roman Empire. This had changed in 1806dissolved under considerable pressure from Napoleon and in accordance with the desire of the Rhine Confederation States to gain their full sovereignty. The Habsburg Emperor Franz II, who had proclaimed himself Emperor of Austria in 1804 following Napoleon's example, resigned the title of Roman Emperor after his ultimatum and released all imperial officials and bodies from their obligations to Germany and the "German Empire". [19] The Holy Roman Empire ended with the act of laying down the imperial crown. The later epoch of the Wilhelmine Empire was referred to as the Second Empire. This choice of words indicated a successor to the "first German Reich" without explicitly stating it. This restraint was tactically and diplomatically necessary. The Austrian Empire and its emperors regarded themselves as successors to the Holy Roman Empire and would thus have been indirectly labeled as illegitimate. The term "Second Reich" was coined by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck in 1923; in his book The Third Reich he called the Holy Roman Empire a "First Reich" and the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 the "Second Reich". He expected that this would be followed by a "Third Reich". Van den Bruck died in 1925, so did not live to see it. The idea of a Third Reich was quickly adopted in the propaganda of the NSDAP, which expressed its rejection of the Weimar Republic (→ "Third Reich" in National Socialism). However, National Socialism soon refrained from using the term “Third Reich”. "Reich", on the other hand, remained in use, over-the-top and pseudo-religious, which in the course of the post-war period increasingly associated the term with National Socialism itself. In the Anglo-Saxon world, people still speak of the Third Reich or the German Reich. The English word Empire is felt to be unsuitable for a republic. That is why one avoids the expression German Empire for the period after 1918, although the Weimar Constitution expressly states in Art. 1 Para. 1: "The German Reich is a republic". Term after 1945 Even in the first years after 1945, the German Reich and Reich were common names for the state to be restored or reorganized. The subject of constitutional and international law itself remained untouched; as such, Germany was represented by the Control Council until 1948, while supreme governmental authority was exercised in the respective zone of occupation by the supreme commander of the Allied forces[20] and for Berlin by the Allied Command. The Allies themselves, before and during the occupation of Germany, never spoke of the German Reich in their statements, but only of Germany or Nazi Germany.[21] In many drafts for a new constitution of the years 1946/1947, for example of the CDU, FDP and DP or their politicians, the expression "German Reich" can be found again.[22] The Pfennig coins issued under Allied rule from 1945 to 1948 continued to bear the designations Reichspfennig and Deutsches Reich.[23] In October 1948, during the deliberations of the Parliamentary Council on the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, the German sub-state planned for the western zones of occupation, it was discussed whether this should continue to be called the German Reich. A decision was made against it for "reasons of a psychological nature": The Reich had "an aggressive accent among the peoples around us" and was understood "as a claim to domination", said Carlo Schmid during the consultation; Theodor Heuss spoke of an "aggressive tone" that the word had acquired.[24] Schmid explained in May 1949: "As venerable as the tradition of the name 'German Reich' is - the memory of the crimes committed in this name during the National Socialist dictatorship is still too fresh".[25] Federal and imperial eagles on a German postage stamp, 1969 Questions of international and constitutional law after 1945 → Main article: Legal situation in Germany after 1945 The unconditional surrender of the Wehrmacht and the subsequent founding of the Federal Republic and the GDR raised the question of whether the German state still existed at all.[26] This question was by no means just academic, since an occupation was to be assumed if the German Reich continued to exist, which meant that the occupying powers were subject in their actions to the restrictions that the Hague Convention on Land Warfare provided for in the event of an occupation of enemy territory. If the Reich no longer existed, they were free of these ties to the Germans.[27] As early as 1944 and 1945, the Austrian-American legal scholar Hans Kelsen advocated the thesis that the German Reich had perished through debellion. With the assumption of governmental power ("supreme authority") in the Berlin Declaration of 5. Since June 1945 there is no longer any German state authority that is one of the three constitutive elements of a state. Assumptions that the German state nevertheless continues to exist are only legal fictions.[28] In contrast, the continuity theorem, which seemed to guarantee the Germans better legal protection, soon prevailed in the discussion process that unfolded in Germany from 1945 onwards.[29] Shortly after Kelsen's arguments became known in Germany, the German-Austrian legal scholar Rudolf Laun contradicted Die Zeit in 1947: Every people has the right to international legal representation, and therefore also to state organs that could carry out this representation. Laun organized a conference at the University of Hamburg, at which the continued existence of the German Reich was supported with arguments.[30] The continued existence thesis was also advocated in much respected legal publications by Erich Kaufmann, Wilhelm Grewe and Rolf Stödter from 1948.[31] Further German discourse on international law took place in the reports of the administrative bureaucracy of the federal states and in the legal journals, which began to appear again from the spring of 1946. A major role was played by the German Office for Peace Issues, an authority in several German states in which, as the legal historian Bernhard Diestelkamp put it, legal scholars were “put at the service of the national cause” by politicians.[32] The dependency of considerations of political utility when answering questions of international law is also clearly evident in the later Federal Foreign Minister Heinrich von Brentano (CDU). At a meeting of the Ellwanger Kreis on November 22, 1947, he took the view that if one looked at things “really as they are”, one could have “considerable constitutional doubts” about the continued existence of the German Reich after 1945. "But for political reasons alone, I believe that we absolutely have to say yes to this question."[33] But there were also dissenting voices. At a meeting of the party executive on August 22, 1946, SPD chairman Kurt Schumacher declared that the German Reich no longer existed, "because the power of the Reich does not currently come from a Reich people." Doom thesis: The leading Bavarian politicians emphatically advocated the thesis that the German Reich had perished, which suited their federalist convictions.[35] At the constitutional convention at Herrenchiemsee in August 1948, where fifteen experts on behalf of the then eleven West German states drew up a draft constitution for a West German state that was to be created, the head of the Bavarian State Chancellery, Anton Pfeiffer, argued that the Reich had a debellatio with the capitulation on May 8th ceased to exist. Therefore, the new state must constitute itself as a federal state of the already founded states, as a "federation of German states" without deriving its sovereignty from the past. In this legal opinion he was supported by the Munich international law expert Hans Nawiasky, who was a member of his delegation. In contrast, the majority of the participants did not see the constituent power in the countries, but in the existing national people, who, according to the right of peoples to self-determination, have the right to do so in those parts of the national territory where free expression of their will is possible, the content and forms of their political existence to design. This right was not abolished by the capitulation, but was only temporarily "suspended".[36] As a result, this attitude prevailed not only in the debate on international law,[37] but also in the Parliamentary Council, which drew up the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany from September 1948 to May 1949. The policy committee emphasized "the continuity of the new federal state in relation [...] to the German Reich, both in terms of state authority and in terms of territory". According to Carlo Schmid, a specialist in constitutional law and SPD representative, this is exercised on a trustee basis by the Allied Control Council and by the German states and municipalities. Schmid made a decisive contribution to the fact that the thesis of the continued existence of the German Reich found its way into the preamble of the Basic Law and thus went from a legal thesis to a constitutional principle.[38] The victorious powers themselves did not officially comment on this controversy. According to the constitutional law teacher Dieter Blumenwitz, the continued existence of the German Reich can be documented under the designation "Germany as a whole" primarily with their state practice after the collapse of the German Reich. In 1945, the victorious powers were also concerned, not least politically, with “postponing final decisions, retaining a debtor for all war claims and taking responsibility for allto secure a say in status and security issues in Central Europe".[16] Likewise, the political scientist Margit Roth concludes from the fact that no annexation took place and that the Potsdam Agreement assumed Germany as a whole that they assumed the German Reich would continue to exist.[39] Bernhard Diestelkamp and Manfred Görtemaker, on the other hand, argue that France took the view that the German Reich had perished.[40] According to Joachim Rückert and Thomas Olechowski, it was important for the USA, Great Britain and the Soviet Union to have as free a hand as possible in their actions. They were therefore interested in expanding their rights more than was customary under international law in the event of an occupation. On the other hand, however, they wanted to keep their duties towards the German population low and therefore left the question of continued existence open.[41] Since 1946, their military governments have been declaring that this is an occupatio sui generis to which the restrictions of international martial law do not apply.[42] After the founding of the Federal Republic, the Western powers decided at a meeting of foreign ministers what status the Federal Republic would have under international law. In a communiqué announced in New York City on September 19, 1950, the foreign ministers recognized "the government of the Federal Republic of Germany as the only freely and legally constituted German government" and therefore "authorized to act as representative in international affairs of the German people to speak for Germany.” In a message to the Federal Government, kept secret for 30 years, which contained a “formula for the definition of the legal status of the Federal Republic” and an interpretative protocol (“Interpretative Minute”) dated the same day, the Foreign Minister, on the one hand, that the federal government is the only one "legitimized to speak for the former German Reich". In the interpretation protocol, they reserved the "supreme power" for the occupying powers and spoke of the "continued existence of the German state". The "authority" of the federal government is limited to the "federal territory". In this declaration, the western powers assumed that the German state would continue to exist. They distinguished between the state as a whole (German Reich) and the Federal Republic. The foreign ministers granted the Federal Republic, with reservations, "the right to represent the German people at international level and to assume the rights and duties of the Reich" - the latter only to the extent "as the federal bodies could de facto exercise rights and fulfill duties." The three powers had a different view of the legal situation in Germany than the federal government “probably until reunification”. Although there was agreement on the "survival of the German Reich as a state and subject of international law", the three powers did not share the German thesis of "the legal identity between the Federal Republic and the Reich".[43] Jochen Abraham Frowein, on the other hand, points out the limited meaning of the declaration: On the one hand, it does not appear from its text that the Federal Government would have been entitled to act as a representative of the German Reich under international law. Rather, it was merely a matter of having a say. In addition, the victorious powers simultaneously sent an interpretation protocol that was not published. It said that the federal government would not be recognized as the de jure government of all of Germany, even if the continued existence thesis was confirmed. However, the recognition of the Federal Republic is only provisional until the reunification of Germany.[44] Nevertheless, the discussion continued. The increasingly dominant adherents of the continued existence thesis argued that the victorious powers explicitly declared in the Berlin Declaration that they did not want to annex Germany, and that the German Reich was therefore not dissolved.[45] The bulk of German legislation after 1945 remained in effect, newly appointed officials being employed as German, not Allied officials. An annexation of German territory expressly did not take place. The state of Prussia was dissolved, the Republic of Austria "restored" in its borders before the "annexation" in 1938; the historic German states remained, only some were re-established with altered borders. As a subject of international law, the Federal Republic is therefore identical to the German Reich, which as a whole was no longer able to act after 1945 due to the lack of state organs. In accordance with this view, the Federal Republic took over all treaties and other rights and obligations of the German Reich, especially those relating to reparations. On April 7, 1954, Federal Chancellor Konrad Adenauer declared in a government declaration that “there is only one German state, againstjust has and will exist and that it is solely the organs of the Federal Republic of Germany that today represent this German state that has never perished".[46] Until about 1969, the Federal Republic of Germany was of the opinion that only one of the two German states, namely itself, represented the entire state of the German Reich, exercised its rights and tasks in a fiduciary manner and was identical with it from a legal point of view. Pointing out that the Germans in the GDR were denied free elections and lacked the right to self-determination, the governments of the Federal Republic claimed sole representation for the citizens of the GDR in the first two decades. The GDR was seen as a mere de facto regime, as territory occupied by a foreign state, or as a new state created through secession. According to this shrink state or core state theory, the German national territory had been shrunk to the territory of the Federal Republic.[47] The social-liberal coalition under Federal Chancellor Willy Brandt only deviated from the legal opinion held up to that point in that it did not assume any identity between the Federal Republic and the continuing German Reich. This was also the view of the Western Allies.[48] Even after the founding of the Federal Republic, legal voices were still raised against the thesis of the continued existence of the German Reich: At a conference in 1954, the prominent constitutional lawyers Wolfgang Abendroth, Willibalt Apelt and Hans Nawiasky represented the theory of collapse in a minority opinion.[49] As late as 1977, the German constitutional lawyer Helmut Ridder vigorously advocated the debellion thesis.[50] In the 1970s, the dismembration thesis was also put forward, according to which the German Reich had disintegrated into its two successor states in 1949 or when the basic treaty with the GDR came into force. However, this thesis is difficult to reconcile with the Berlin Declaration or the Potsdam Agreement of 1945, which speaks of Germany within the borders of December 31, 1937.[51] With the judgment of the Federal Constitutional Court on the basic treaty with the GDR of July 31, 1973, the theory of continued existence became the supreme court ruling in the Federal Republic. The Bavarian state government had initiated a norm control procedure because it seemed that the contract violated the reunification requirement of the Basic Law. The lawsuit was dismissed. In its reasoning, the Constitutional Court stated: "The Basic Law - not just a thesis of international law theory and constitutional law theory! – assumes that the German Reich survived the collapse of 1945 and did not perish either through the capitulation or through the exercise of foreign state authority in Germany by the Allied occupying powers, nor later; that follows from the preamble, from Art. 16, Art. 23, Art. 116 and Art. 146 GG. This also corresponds to the established case law of the Federal Constitutional Court, which the Senate upholds. The German Reich continues to exist (BVerfGE 2, 266 [277]; 3, 288 [319 f.]; 5, 85 [126]; 6, 309 [336, 363]), still has legal capacity, but is an overall state due to a lack of organization, especially due to a lack of institutionalized bodies, not capable of acting. The concept of the all-German people and the all-German state authority is also 'anchored' in the Basic Law (BVerfGE 2, 266 [277]). The four powers also bear responsibility for “Germany as a whole” (BVerfGE 1, 351 [362 f., 367]). With the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany, a new West German state was not founded, but a part of Germany was reorganized [...]. The Federal Republic of Germany is therefore not the 'legal successor' of the German Reich, but as a state identical to the state 'German Reich' - in terms of its spatial extent, however, 'partially identical', so that the identity does not claim exclusivity in this respect. […] Under constitutional law, it limits its sovereignty to the ‘scope of application of the Basic Law’. The Federal Republic […] also feels responsible for the whole of Germany […]. The German Democratic Republic is part of Germany and cannot be regarded as a foreign country in relation to the Federal Republic of Germany.” The Federal Republic and the GDR are sub-orders under a common roof, which is why this legal concept is referred to as the umbrella state theory or sub-order theory. The de facto recognition of the GDR, which the basic treaty entails, is "of a special kind". Irrespective of the reunification requirement, which binds all constitutional organs, it is permissible for "an additional new legal basis [...] to bind the two states in Germany more closely together than normal international treaties between two states."[52] This position was confirmed with reference to the identity of theGerman people in the so-called Teso resolution of the Federal Constitutional Court of 1987.[53] It was about whether GDR citizen Marco Teso, who was born in Meissen in 1940 and had moved to the West from East Germany, should be granted German citizenship, which the Nazi state had refused him at birth because of his Italian father. The Federal Constitutional Court ruled in the spirit of Teso and affirmed that there is only one single German nationality. However, the court differed with regard to the choice of term from 1973: Now there was no longer talk of the “German Reich as a subject of international law” but of a “subject identity” of the Federal Republic with the “German Reich as a subject of international law”.[54] Today, this legal position is the prevailing opinion in jurisprudence and in international practice;[55] it has fully established itself as a doctrine.[56] The former Nazi state was divided into a federal state in 1949.[57] The legal debate about the continued existence thesis has come to a standstill, since it has now been raised to the level of constitutional law and has been decided in a legally binding manner.[58] In the Soviet Union, the GDR and the Eastern Bloc countries, people saw things differently. In its first constitution of 1949, the GDR initially claimed to be the state of all Germans and therefore identical with the German Reich. This claim to continuity can be seen, for example, in the Görlitz Agreement of July 6, 1950, in which the GDR recognized the Oder-Neisse line as the "state border between Germany and Poland".[59] This legal opinion can also be seen in the GDR citizenship law, which updated the Reich and Nationality Act of 1913 with a few changes until the GDR Citizenship Act of February 20, 1967.[60] From 1951 onwards, however, the legal opinion prevailed that the GDR was to be regarded as a new state whose state power was no longer in the hands of monopoly capital, but of all working people. The German Reich went down in a debellatio in 1945, there are now two German states. This was evident in the GDR constitution of 1968, in which reunification was given up as a state goal.[61] The Soviet Union seems to have assumed that the German Reich would continue to exist for a longer period of time, but refrained from making such statements out of consideration for its ally, the GDR. Vintage stamp super sale online! Продажа старинных марок онлайн - stamplake.com STAMPLAKE.COM PROFESSIONAL SELLER Type of capital investments, as investments in antiques is growing in popularity more and more each day. It's quite a profitable and safe investment, as prices for antiques are steadily growing (on average 20% per year), which often exceeds the growth of stocks in the stock market. In addition, investment in antiques enriches not only materially bringing income but also spiritually, bringing esthetic pleasure. However, investing money in antiques is a complex activity. In order to make substantial amount of money, You need to acquire special knowledge and build relationships in the appropriate community. It is necessary to understand what things really have the potential to increase in value and which, on the contrary, are hopeless. The word "antique" has Latin roots and means "old". The core value of antiques is in the fact that they are old. Age objects which are considered as antique, can start from 10-15 years, depending on the historical, physical and chemical characteristics of the object. Often, investment in antiques and collecting go hand in hand. That's why making money on old things is going better at those who are careful to things and who are orientating in the history very well. Fortunately for new investors, in the environment of antiques consultants are available whose main task is to help the investor to separate the "wheat from the chaff" and to make competent investment. It should be noted that to start investing in antiques it's not necessary to have a large amount of money. A lot of people begin with inexpensive paintings of young artists and a variety of interesting subjects. As a rule, in the beginning investor collects works of art in the style that appeales to him, purely for pleasure, and much later investor begins to think about making money. You can buy antiques literally everywhere, even at the grandmother, neighbor. However, if you are not familiar with antiques, it is wiser to trust the various antique shops, exhibition and museum authority. Such authority have expertise in selling things and do not allow to enter counterfeits into the market. If you want to do engage in such a profitable and exciting business, as investing in antiques, we will be happy to offer You assistance which will be provided by our experienced consultants who can help You see all the "pitfalls", to make the right choices and get real pleasure from the trip to the mysterious and magical world of collection. Dear collectors! StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in. Features and further details Dear collectors! StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in. Our company is made by collectors for collectors. We are selling various items which are related to the collection (coins, banknotes, faleras, antiques, various accessories, specialized literature and much else). Definitely here you will find a lot of necessary and useful items which you are interested in. We are always glad to meet you personally and definitely you will find the item you are interested in. Contact us We can be contacted at any time through eBay messages if you have any questions, comments or product requests. We will respond to you within 24-48 hours and do our best to help you out! We encourage our customers to contact us with any questions or concerns! We'd like to be sure you are completely satisfied with your purchase. Payment PAYPAL , VISA , MASTERCARD , MASESTRO , AMERICAN EXPRESS Shipping WITH TRACKING NUMBER IN 1-2 WORKING DAYS AFTER PAYMENT Disclaimer If the description of the lot differs from its image, the image will have priority Best regards from STAMPLAKE.COM

Price: 12.5 USD

Location: Bergen

End Time: 2024-08-10T04:35:39.000Z

Shipping Cost: 7.95 USD