Japan Very Nice Old Classic Postcard with Samurai Riding Horse

Description: JAPAN JAPANESE POSTCARD Japan Very Nice Old Classic Postcard Samurai Riding Horse JapanJapan[a] isan island country in EastAsia. It is in the northwest PacificOcean and is bordered on the west by the Seaof Japan, extending from the Seaof Okhotsk in the north toward the EastChina Sea, PhilippineSea, and Taiwan in the south.Japan is a part of the Ring of Fire, and spans an archipelago of 14,125 islands,with the four main islands being Hokkaido, Honshu (the"mainland"), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Tokyo is thecountry's capital and largest city,followed by Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Kobe, and Kyoto.The Japanese archipelago has been inhabited sincethe Upper Paleolithic (30,000BC). Between the fourth and ninth centuries AD, the kingdoms of the regionbecame unified under anemperor and the imperial court basedin Heian-kyō.Beginning in the 12th century, political power was held by a series of militarydictators (shōgun) andfeudal lords (daimyō), andenforced by a class of warrior nobility (samurai).After a century-long period of civil war,the country was reunified in 1603 under the Tokugawa shogunate,which enacted anisolationist foreign policy. In 1854, aUnited States fleet forced Japan to opentrade to the West, which led to theend of the shogunate and therestoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meijiperiod, the Empireof Japan adopted a Western-modeledconstitution, and pursued a program of industrialization and modernization.Amidst a rise in militarism and overseas colonization, Japan invaded China in1937 and entered World War II asan Axispower in 1941. After suffering defeat in the PacificWar and two atomic bombings,Japan surrendered in1945 and came under a seven-year Alliedoccupation, during which it adopted a new constitution.Under the 1947 constitution, Japan has maintained a constitutional monarchy witha bicameral legislature,the National Diet. Japan is a highlydeveloped country and a greatpower, with one of the largest economies bynominal GDP. Japan has renounced its right todeclare war, though it maintains a self-defense force thatranks as one of the world's strongestmilitaries. A global leader in the automotive, robotics,and electronics industries,the country has made significant contributions to science and technology,and is one of the world's largest exporters and importers.It is part of multiple major international and intergovernmentalinstitutions. Japan has over 125 million inhabitants and is the 11th most populouscountry in the world, as well as one of the mostdensely populated. About three-fourths of the country's terrain ismountainous, concentrating its highly urbanizedpopulation on narrow coastalplains. Japan is divided into 47 administrativeprefectures and eight traditionalregions. The Greater Tokyo Area isthe most populousmetropolitan area in the world. Japan has one of the world's longest lifeexpectancies but is experiencing apopulation decline due to its very low birth rate. A cultural superpower, Japan'sculture is well known around the world, including itsart, cuisine, film, music,and popular culture,which encompasses prominent manga, anime, and video game industries.EtymologyMain article: Namesof JapanThe name for Japan in Japanese iswritten using the kanji 日本 andis pronounced Nippon or Nihon.[9] Before 日本 wasadopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China as Wa (倭, changedin Japan around 757 to 和) and in Japan by the endonym Yamato.[10] Nippon, theoriginal Sino-Japanese reading ofthe characters, is favored for official uses, including on Japanese banknotes andpostage stamps.[9] Nihon istypically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts in Japanese phonology duringthe Edoperiod.[10] Thecharacters 日本 mean "sun origin",[9] whichis the source of the popular Western epithet "Landof the Rising Sun".[11]The name "Japan" is based on Min or WuChinese pronunciations of 日本 andwas introduced to European languages through early trade.[12] Inthe 13th century, Marco Polo recorded the EarlyMandarin Chinese pronunciation of the characters 日本國 as Cipangu.[13] Theold Malay name for Japan, Japang or Japun, wasborrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered by Portuguese tradersin Southeast Asia, who broughtthe word to Europe in the early 16th century.[14] Thefirst version of the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, whichspelled the name as Giapan in a translation of a 1565Portuguese letter.[15][12]HistoryMain article: Historyof JapanFor achronological guide, see Timeline of Japanese history.Prehistoric to classical historyA Paleolithic culture fromaround 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of the islands of Japan.[16] Thiswas followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of the Jōmonperiod) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culturecharacterized by pit dwelling andrudimentary agriculture.[17] Clayvessels from the period are among the oldest surviving examplesof pottery.[18] Fromaround 700 BC, the Japonic-speaking Yayoipeople began to enter the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula,[19][20][21] interminglingwith the Jōmon;[21] the Yayoiperiod saw the introduction of practices including wet-ricefarming,[22] anew style of pottery,[23] andmetallurgy from China and Korea.[24] Accordingto legend, Emperor Jimmu (grandsonof Amaterasu)founded akingdom in central Japan in 660 BC, beginning a continuous imperialline.[25]Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Bookof Han, completed in 111 AD. Buddhism wasintroduced to Japan from Baekje (a Korean kingdom)in 552, but the development of JapaneseBuddhism was primarily influenced by China.[26] Despiteearly resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figureslike Prince Shōtoku, and gainedwidespread acceptance beginning in the Asukaperiod (592–710).[27]In 645, the government led by PrinceNaka no Ōe and Fujiwara no Kamatari devisedand implemented the far-reaching TaikaReforms. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideasand philosophies from China.[28] Itnationalized all land in Japan, to be distributed equally amongcultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basisfor a new system of taxation.[29] Thetrue aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and toenhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on thegovernmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to Chinato learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion.[28] The JinshinWar of 672, a bloody conflict between PrinceŌama and his nephew PrinceŌtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms.[30] Thesereforms culminated with the promulgation of the TaihōCode, which consolidated existing statutes and established thestructure of the central and subordinate local governments.[29] Theselegal reforms created the ritsuryō state,a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place forhalf a millennium.[30]The Nara period (710–784)marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara).The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture withthe completion of the Kojiki (712)and Nihon Shoki (720),as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture.[31][32] A smallpox epidemic in735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third ofJapan's population.[32][33] In784, Emperor Kanmu moved thecapital, settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in794.[32] Thismarked the beginning of the Heianperiod (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenousJapanese culture emerged. MurasakiShikibu's TheTale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem "Kimigayo" werewritten during this time.[34]Feudal eraJapan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence anddominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai.[35] In1185, following the defeat of the Tairaclan by the Minamotoclan in the GenpeiWar, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo establisheda military government at Kamakura.[36] AfterYoritomo's death, the Hōjōclan came to power as regents for the shōgun.[32] The Zen schoolof Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakuraperiod (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.[37] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in1274 and 1281 but was eventually overthrown by EmperorGo-Daigo.[32] Go-Daigowas defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336,beginning the Muromachi period (1336–1573).[38] Thesucceeding Ashikaga shogunate failedto control the feudal warlords (daimyō) and a civilwar began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengokuperiod ("Warring States").[39]During the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionariesreached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchangebetween Japan and the West.[32][40] OdaNobunaga used European technology and firearms to conquer manyother daimyō;[41] hisconsolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period.[42] After the death of Nobunaga in1582, his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi,unified the nation in the early 1590s and launched two unsuccessfulinvasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.[32]Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent forHideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori andused his position to gain political and military support.[43] Whenopen war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in1600. He was appointed shōgun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modernTokyo).[44] Theshogunate enacted measures including bukeshohatto, as a code of conduct to control theautonomous daimyō,[45] andin 1639 the isolationist sakoku ("closedcountry") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuouspolitical unity known as the Edoperiod (1603–1868).[44][46] ModernJapan's economic growth began in this period, resulting in roads andwater transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such as futurescontracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers.[47] Thestudy of Western sciences (rangaku)continued through contact with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki.[44] TheEdo period gave rise to kokugaku ("nationalstudies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.[48]Modern eraThe United States Navy sentCommodore Matthew C. Perry to forcethe opening of Japan to the outside world. Arriving at Uraga withfour "Black Ships" in July1853, the Perry Expedition resultedin the March 1854 Convention of Kanagawa.[44] Subsequentsimilar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and politicalcrises.[44] Theresignation of the shōgun ledto the Boshin War and theestablishment of a centralized state nominallyunified under the emperor (the MeijiRestoration).[49] AdoptingWestern political, judicial, and military institutions, the Cabinet organizedthe Privy Council,introduced the Meiji Constitution (November29, 1890), and assembled the ImperialDiet.[50] Duringthe Meiji period (1868–1912),the Empire of Japan emergedas the most developed states in Asia andas an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand itssphere of influence.[51][52][53] Aftervictories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905),Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half of Sakhalin,[54][50] andannexed Korea in 1910.[55] TheJapanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, witha significant shift to urbanization.[56][57]The early 20th century saw a period of Taishōdemocracy (1912–1926) overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization.[58][59] World War I allowedJapan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, tocapture German possessions inthe Pacific andin China.[59] The1920s saw a political shift towards statism, aperiod of lawlessness following the 1923 Great Tokyo Earthquake,the passing of laws against politicaldissent, and a series of attemptedcoups.[57][60][61] Thisprocess accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalistgroups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication toexpansion in Asia. In 1931, Japan invaded and occupiedManchuria; following internationalcondemnation of the occupation, it resigned from the Leagueof Nations two years later.[62] In1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with NaziGermany; the 1940 TripartitePact made it one of the AxisPowers.[57]TheEmpire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-JapaneseWar (1937–1945).[63] In1940, the Empire invaded FrenchIndochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo onJapan.[57][64] OnDecember 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor,as well as on British forces in Malaya, Singapore,and Hong Kong,among others, beginning World War II in the Pacific.[65] Throughoutareas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed againstlocal inhabitants, with many forced into sexualslavery.[66] After Allied victoriesduring the next four years, which culminated in the Soviet invasion ofManchuria and the atomic bombings ofHiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditionalsurrender.[67] Thewar cost Japan its colonies andmillions of lives.[57] TheAllies (led by the United States) repatriated millions of Japanesesettlers from their former colonies and military campsthroughout Asia, largely eliminating the JapaneseEmpire and its influence over the territories it conquered.[68][69] TheAllies convened the International MilitaryTribunal for the Far East to prosecute Japanese leaders exceptthe Emperor[70] for war crimes.[69]In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizingliberal democratic practices.[69] The Allied occupation endedwith the Treaty of San Francisco in1952,[71] andJapan was granted membership in the UnitedNations in 1956.[69] A period of record growth propelledJapan to become the second-largest economy inthe world;[69] thisended in the mid-1990s after the popping of an asset price bubble,beginning the "Lost Decade".[72] In2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes inits recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichinuclear disaster.[73] OnMay 1, 2019, after the historic abdication of EmperorAkihito, his son Naruhito becameEmperor, beginning the Reiwa era.[74]GeographyMain articles: Geography of Japan and Geologyof JapanJapancomprises 14,125 islands extendingalong the Pacific coast of Asia.[75] Itstretches over 3000 km (1900 mi) northeast–southwest from the Seaof Okhotsk to the EastChina Sea.[76][77] Thecountry's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa.[78] The RyukyuIslands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu.The Nanpō Islands are southand east of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as the Japanese archipelago.[79] Asof 2019, Japan's territory is 377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi).[1] Japanhas the sixth-longest coastline inthe world at 29,751 km (18,486 mi). Because of its far-flung outlyingislands, Japan has the eighth-largest exclusive economic zone inthe world, covering 4,470,000 km2 (1,730,000 sq mi).[80][81]The Japanese archipelago is 67% forests and14% agricultural.[82] Theprimarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation.[83] Thusthe habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high populationdensities: Japan is the 40th most densely populatedcountry even without considering that local concentration.[84][85] Honshu hasthe highest population density at 450 persons/km2 (1200/sq mi)as of 2010, while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2 asof 2016.[86] Asof 2014, approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is reclaimedland (umetatechi).[87] LakeBiwa is an ancientlake and the country's largest freshwater lake.[88]Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and volcanic eruptions becauseof its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.[89] Ithas the 17th highest naturaldisaster risk as measured in the 2016 World Risk Index.[90] Japanhas 111 active volcanoes.[91] Destructiveearthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century;[92] the 1923 Tokyo earthquake killedover 140,000 people.[93] Morerecent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshinearthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake,which triggered a large tsunami.[73]ClimateMain article: Geography of Japan § ClimateTheclimate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north tosouth. The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has a humid continentalclimate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation isnot heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.[94]In the Sea of Japan region onHonshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter.In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperaturesbecause of the Foehn.[95] The Central Highland hasa typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differencesbetween summer and winter. The mountains of the Chūgoku andShikoku regions shelter the SetoInland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weatheryear-round.[94]The Pacific coast features a humidsubtropical climate that experiences milder winters withoccasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonalwind. The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have a subtropicalclimate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is veryheavy, especially during the rainy season.[94] Themain rainy season beginsin early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north. In latesummer and early autumn, typhoons often bringheavy rain.[96] Accordingto the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures havecaused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere.[97] Thehighest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), wasrecorded on July 23, 2018,[98] andrepeated on August 17, 2020.[99]BiodiversityMain article: Wildlifeof JapanJapan has nine forest ecoregions whichreflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moistbroadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and BoninIslands, to temperate broadleaf andmixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands,to temperate coniferousforests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[100] Japanhas over 90,000 species of wildlife as of 2019,[101] includingthe brownbear, the Japanesemacaque, the Japanese raccoon dog,the small Japanese fieldmouse, and the Japanese giantsalamander.[102]A large network of national parks hasbeen established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as 52 Ramsar wetland sites.[103][104] Four sites havebeen inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding naturalvalue.[105]EnvironmentMain articles: Environmental issues in Japan and Climate change in JapanInthe period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policieswere downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution waswidespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, thegovernment introduced environmental protection laws in 1970.[106] The oilcrisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energybecause of Japan's lack of natural resources.[107]Japan ranks 20th in the 2018 EnvironmentalPerformance Index, which measures a country's commitment toenvironmental sustainability.[108] Japanis the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbondioxide.[97] Asthe host and signatory of the 1997 KyotoProtocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbondioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[109] In2020, the government of Japan announced a target of carbon-neutrality by2050.[110] Environmentalissues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter,and toxics), wastemanagement, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change,chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.[111]Governmentand politicsMain articles: Emperorof Japan, Government of Japan, Politicsof Japan, and Law of JapanJapanis a unitary state and constitutional monarchy inwhich the power of the Emperor islimited to a ceremonial role.[112] Executivepower is instead wielded by the Prime Minister of Japan andhis Cabinet, whose sovereignty isvested in the Japanese people.[113] Naruhito isthe Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his father Akihito uponhis accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne in2019.[112]Japan'slegislative organ is the NationalDiet, a bicameral parliament.[112] Itconsists of a lower House ofRepresentatives with 465 seats, elected by popular vote everyfour years or when dissolved, and an upper House of Councillors with245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms.[114] Thereis universal suffrage foradults over 18 years of age,[115] witha secret ballot for allelected offices.[113] Theprime minister as the head of government hasthe power to appoint and dismiss Ministers of State,and is appointed bythe emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet.[114] FumioKishida is Japan's prime minister; he took office after winningthe 2021Liberal Democratic Party leadership election.[116] The right-wing bigtent Liberal DemocraticParty has been the dominant party inthe country since the 1950s, often called the 1955System.[117]Historically influenced by Chineselaw, the Japanese legal system developed independently during theEdo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[118] Sincethe late 19th century, the judicial system hasbeen largely based on the civil law ofEurope, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established a civilcode based on the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch,which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications.[119] The Constitution of Japan,adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world.[120] Statutorylaw originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that theemperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the powerto oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the SixCodes.[118] Japan'scourt system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court andthree levels of lower courts.[121]According to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union, themajority of members of the Japanese parliament are male and range in age from50 to 70. In April 2023, according to Japanese public broadcaster NHK, RyosukeTakashima, 26, is Japan's youngest-ever mayor.[122]Administrative divisionsMain articles: Administrative divisions of Japan and Prefectures of JapanJapan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by anelected governor and legislature.[112] Inthe following table, the prefectures are grouped by region:[123]ForeignrelationsMain article: Foreign relations of JapanA member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one ofthe G4countries seeking reform of the Security Council.[124] Japanis a member of the G7, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three",and is a participant in the EastAsia Summit.[125] Itis the world's fifth-largest donor of official developmentassistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014.[126] In2024, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world.[127]Japan has close economic and military relations with the UnitedStates, with which it maintains a securityalliance.[128] TheUnited States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source ofJapanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with militarybases in Japan.[128] In2016, Japan announced the Free and Open Indo-Pacific vision, which frames itsregional policies.[129][130] Japanis also a member of the Quadrilateral SecurityDialogue (more commonly "the Quad"), a multilateralsecurity dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific region,along with the United States, Australia, and India, reflecting existingrelations and patterns of cooperation.[131][132]Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with itsneighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Islands,which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.[133] SouthKorea's control of the LiancourtRocks is acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed byJapan.[134] Japanhas strained relations with China and Taiwan over the SenkakuIslands and the status of Okinotorishima.[135]MilitaryMain article: Japan Self-Defense ForcesJapan is the second-highest-ranked Asian country in the 2022 Global Peace Index,after Singapore.[136] Itspent 1.1% of its total GDP on its defence budget in2022,[137] andmaintained the tenth-largest militarybudget in the world in 2022.[138] Thecountry's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of theJapanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare waror use military force in international disputes.[139] Themilitary is governed by the Ministry of Defense,and primarily consists of the Japan GroundSelf-Defense Force, the Japan MaritimeSelf-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-DefenseForce. The deployment of troops toIraq and Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan'smilitary since World War II.[140]The Government of Japan hasbeen making changes to its security policy which include the establishment ofthe National SecurityCouncil, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and thedevelopment of the National Defense Program Guidelines.[141] InMay 2014, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe said Japanwanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War IIand take more responsibility for regional security.[142] InDecember 2022, Prime Minister FumioKishida further confirmed this trend, instructing thegovernment to increase spending by 65% until 2027.[143] Recenttensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debateover the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society.[144][145]Law enforcementMain articles: Law enforcement in Japan and Crimein JapanDomestic security in Japan is provided mainly by the prefectural policedepartments, under the oversight of the National Police Agency.[146] Asthe central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, theNational Police Agency is administered by the National Public SafetyCommission.[147] The Special Assault Team comprisesnational-level counter-terrorism tacticalunits that cooperate with territorial-level Anti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBCTerrorism Squads.[148] The JapanCoast Guard guards territorial waters surrounding Japan anduses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marine environmental crime,poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegalimmigration.[149]The Firearm and SwordPossession Control Law strictly regulates the civilianownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry.[150][151] Accordingto the United Nations Officeon Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that reportstatistics as of 2018, the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder,abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan.[152][153][154][155]Human rightsSee also: Human rights in Japan and LGBT rights in JapanJapan has faced criticism for not allowing same-sex marriages,despite a majority of Japanese people supporting marriage equality.[156] Itis the least developed out of the G7 countriesin terms of LGBT equality.[157][158] Japanlegally prohibits racial and religious discrimination under its constitution.[159] Japanis also a signatory to the InternationalConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,[160] whileit facing criticism for racialprofiling by police.[161][162] Japanmaintains death penalties.[163][164]EconomyMain article: Economyof JapanJapan has the world's fourth-largest economyby nominal GDP, after that of the United States, China and Germany;and the fourth-largest economy by PPP.[165] Asof 2021, Japan's labor force isthe world's eighth-largest,consisting of over 68.6 million workers.[80] Asof 2022, Japan has a low unemployment rate ofaround 2.6%.[166] Itspoverty rate is the second highest among the G7 countries,[167] andexceeds 15.7% of the population.[168] Japanhas the highest ratio of public debt toGDP among advanced economies,[169] withnational debt estimated at 248% relative to GDP as of 2022.[170] The Japaneseyen is the world's third-largest reservecurrency after the US dollar and the euro.[171]Japan was the world's fifth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer in2022.[172][173] Itsexports amounted to 18.2% of its total GDP in 2021.[174] Asof 2022, Japan's main export markets were China (23.9 percent, including HongKong) and the United States (18.5 percent).[175] Itsmain exports are motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, andauto parts.[80] Japan'smain import markets as of 2022 were China (21.1 percent), the UnitedStates (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent).[175] Japan'smain imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals,and raw materials for its industries.[175]The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprisesare influential, and lifetime employment andseniority-based career advancement are common in the Japanese workenvironment.[176][177] Japanhas a large cooperative sector, withthree of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largest consumer cooperative andthe largest agriculturalcooperative as of 2018.[178] It ranks highly for competitiveness and economicfreedom. Japan ranked sixth in the Global CompetitivenessReport in 2019.[179] Itattracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019,[180] andwas ranked eleventh inthe world in 2019 for inbound tourism.[181] The2021 Travel and TourismCompetitiveness Report ranked Japan first in the world outof 117 countries.[182] Itsinternational tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion.[181]Agriculture and fisheryMain article: Agriculture, forestry, andfishing in JapanThe Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of thecountry's total GDP as of 2018.[114] Only11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.[183] Becauseof this lack of arable land, a system of terraces isused to farm in small areas.[184] Thisresults in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, withan agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% as of 2018.[185] Japan'ssmall agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected.[186] Therehas been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficulttime finding successors.[187]Japan ranked seventh in the world in tonnage of fish caught andcaptured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of4,000,000 tons over the previous decade.[188] Japanmaintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15%of the global catch,[80] promptingcritiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna.[189] Japanhas sparked controversy by supporting commercial whaling.[190]Industry and servicesMain articles: Manufacturing in Japan, Trade and services in Japan, Electronics industry in Japan,and Automotive industry in JapanJapan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the"largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, machinetools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances,textiles, and processed foods".[80] Japan'sindustrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP.[80] Thecountry's manufacturing output is the third highest inthe world as of 2019.[192]Japan is the third-largestautomobile producer in the world as of 2022 and is home to Toyota, theworld's largest automobilecompany by vehicle production.[191][193] Quantitatively,Japan was the world's largest exporter of cars in 2021,[194] thoughit was overtaken by China in early 2023.[195][196] TheJapanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asianneighbors, South Korea and China; as a 2020 government initiative identifiedthis sector as a target for increasing exports.[197]Japan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its totaleconomic output as of 2021.[198] Banking,retail, transportation,and telecommunications areall major industries, with companies such as Toyota, Mitsubishi UFJ,-NTT, Aeon, SoftBank, Hitachi, and Itochu listedas among the largest in the world.[199][200]Science and technologyMain articles: History of science and technologyin Japan, Science and technology in Japan, Video gaming in Japan, and List of Japanese inventions anddiscoveriesJapan is a leading country in scientific research,particularly in the natural sciences and engineering. The country ranked 13thin the Global Innovation Index in2023.[201] Relativeto gross domestic product, Japan's research anddevelopment budget is the secondhighest in the world,[202] with867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budgetas of 2017.[203] Thecountry has produced twenty-two Nobellaureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,[204] andthree Fields medalists.[205]Japan leads the world in robotics productionand use, supplying 45% of the world's 2020 total;[206] downfrom 55% in 2017.[207] Japanhas the second highest number of researchers in science and technology percapita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees.[208]Once considered the strongest in the world, the Japaneseconsumer electronics industry is in a state of decline as regional competitionarises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China.[209] However, Japan's video gamesector remains a major industry. In 2014, Japan's consumervideo game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobilegaming.[210] By2015, Japan had become the world's fourth-largest PC game market,behind only China,the United States, and SouthKorea.[211]The Japan AerospaceExploration Agency is Japan's national spaceagency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, andleads development of rockets and satellites.[212] Itis a participant in the International SpaceStation: the Japanese ExperimentModule (Kibō) was added to the station during SpaceShuttle assembly flights in 2008.[213] The spaceprobe Akatsuki waslaunched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015.[214] Japan'splans in space exploration includebuilding a Moon base andlanding astronauts by 2030.[215] In2007, it launched lunar explorer SELENE (Selenologicaland Engineering Explorer) from Tanegashima SpaceCenter. The largest lunar mission since the Apolloprogram, its purpose was to gather data on the Moon'sorigin and evolution. The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October4, 2007,[216][217] andwas deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009.[218]InfrastructureTransportationMain article: Transport in JapanJapan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructuresince the 1990s.[219] Thecountry has approximately 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 miles) of roads made upof 1,000,000 kilometers (620,000 miles) of city, town and village roads,130,000 kilometers (81,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 54,736 kilometers(34,011 miles) of general national highways and 7641 kilometers (4748 miles) ofnational expressways asof 2017.[220]Since privatization in 1987,[221] dozens of Japaneserailway companies compete in regional and local passengertransportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, SeibuRailway and KeioCorporation. The high-speed Shinkansen (bullettrains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality.[222]There are 175 airports in Japan asof 2021.[80] Thelargest domestic airport, HanedaAirport in Tokyo, was Asia's second-busiest airport in2019.[223] TheKeihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98and 5.22 million TEU respectivelyas of 2017.[224]EnergyMain article: Energyin JapanAs of 2019, 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced frompetroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% from hydropower and2.8% from nuclear power,among other sources. Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010.[225] ByMay 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had been taken offlinebecause of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichinuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officialscontinued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some toservice.[226] The Sendai Nuclear PowerPlant restarted in 2015,[227] andsince then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted.[228] Japanlacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence on imported energy.[229] Thecountry has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levelsof energy efficiency.[230]Water supply and sanitationMain article: Water supply and sanitation inJapanResponsibility for the water and sanitation sector is sharedbetween the Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare, in charge of water supply for domestic use; the Ministryof Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, in charge of waterresources development as well as sanitation; the Ministry of theEnvironment, in charge of ambient water quality and environmentalpreservation; and the Ministry of InternalAffairs and Communications, in charge of performance benchmarking ofutilities.[231] Accessto an improved water source isuniversal in Japan. About 98% of the population receives piped water supplyfrom public utilities.[232]DemographicsMain articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanesepeople, Ethnic groups of Japan, List of metropolitan areas inJapan, and List of cities in JapanJapan has a population of almost 125 million, of whom nearly 122million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates).[233] Asmall population of foreign residents makes up the remainder.[234] Japanis the world's fastest aging country andhas the highest proportion of elderly citizens ofany country, comprising one-third of its total population;[235] thisis the result of a post–World War II babyboom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and adecrease in birth rates.[236] Japanhas a total fertility rate of1.4, which is below the replacement rate of2.1, and is among the world's lowest;[237] ithas a medianage of 48.4, the highest in the world.[238] Asof 2020, over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one infour out of the Japanese population.[235] Asa growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless,[239][240] Japan'spopulation is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065.[235]The changes in demographic structure have created several socialissues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase inthe cost of social security benefits.[239] TheGovernment of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person foreach person of working age by 2060.[238] Immigration andbirth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide youngerworkers to support the nation's aging population.[241][242] OnApril 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting therights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors.[243]In 2022, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.[244] Thecapital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022).[245] Itis part of the Greater Tokyo Area,the biggest metropolitan area inthe world with 38,140,000 people (2016).[246] Japanis an ethnically and culturally homogeneoussociety,[247] withthe Japanese people forming98.1% of the country's population.[248] Minorityethnic groups in the country include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuanpeople.[249] ZainichiKoreans,[250] Chinese,[251] Filipinos,[252] Braziliansmostly of Japanese descent,[253] andPeruvians mostly of Japanese descent arealso among Japan's small minority groups.[254] Burakumin makeup a social minority group.[255]LanguagesMain article: Languages of JapanThe Japaneselanguage is Japan's de facto national languageand the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country.[256] Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinesecharacters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries basedon cursive script and radicals usedby kanji), as well as the Latinalphabet and Arabicnumerals.[257] Englishhas taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language.As a result, the prevalence of English in the educational system has increased,with English classes becoming mandatory at all levels of the Japanese schoolsystem by 2020.[256] Japanese Sign Language isthe primary sign language used inJapan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has beenhistorically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educationalsupport.[256]Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni),part of the Japonic language family,are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain.[258] Fewchildren learn these languages,[259] butlocal governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditionallanguages.[260] The Ainulanguage, which is a languageisolate, is moribund,with only a few native speakers remaining as of 2014.[261] Additionally,a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrantcommunities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such as Korean (includinga distinct Zainichi Korean dialect), Chinese and Portuguese.[256]ReligionMain article: Religionin JapanJapan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom.[262] Upperestimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Shinto asits indigenous religion.[263] However,these estimates are based on people affiliated witha temple, rather than the number of true believers. Many Japanese peoplepractice both Shinto and Buddhism;they can either identify with both religions or describe themselves asnon-religious or spiritual.[264] Thelevel of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remainshigh, especially during festivals andoccasions such as the firstshrine visit of the NewYear.[265] Taoism and Confucianism fromChina have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.[28]Today, 1%[266] to1.5% of the population are Christians.[267] Throughoutthe latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity(including Western style weddings, Valentine'sDay and Christmas) have become popularas secular customs among many Japanese.[268]About 90% of those practicing Islamin Japan are foreign-born migrants as of 2016.[269] Asof 2018 there were an estimated 105 mosques and200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals.[270] Otherminority religions include Hinduism, Judaism,and Baháʼí Faith,as well as the animist beliefs of theAinu.[271]EducationMain article: Education in JapanSince the 1947 Fundamental Law ofEducation, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and junior high school,which together last for nine years.[272] Almostall children continue their education at a three-year senior high school.[273] Thetop-ranking university in the country is the University of Tokyo.[274] Startingin April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary schooland junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schoolingprogram; MEXT plansfor this approach to be adopted nationwide.[275]The Programme forInternational Student Assessment (PISA) coordinated by the OECDranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best inthe world.[276] Japanis one of the top-performing OECD countries in readingliteracy, math, and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has oneof the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.[277][276][278] Itspent roughly 3.1% of its total GDP on education as of 2018,[279] belowthe OECD average of 4.9%.[280] In2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds thathave attained tertiary education with 55.6%.[281] Approximately65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary educationqualification, with bachelor's degrees being held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25to 64, the second most in the OECD after South Korea.[281] Japanesewomen are more highly educated than the men: 59 percent of women possess auniversity degree, compared to 52 percent of men.[282]HealthMain articles: Healthin Japan and Health care system in JapanHealth care in Japan is provided by national and localgovernments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through auniversal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access,with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance throughemployers can participate in a national health insurance program administeredby local governments.[283] Since1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[284]Japan spent 10.9% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2020.[285] In2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 84.62 years (81.64years for males and 87.74 years for females), the highest in the world;[286] whileit had a very low infant mortality rate (2per 1,000 live births).[287] Since1981, the principal cause of death in Japan is cancer,which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed by cardiovascular diseases,which led to 15% of the deaths.[288] Japanhas one of the world's highestsuicide rates, which is considered a major social issue.[289] Anothersignificant public health issue is smokingamong Japanese men.[290] However,Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level of dementia amongdeveloped countries.[291]CultureMain article: Cultureof JapanSee also: Japanese popular cultureContemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia,Europe, and North America.[292] TraditionalJapanese arts include crafts suchas ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls;performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; andother practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japanhas a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible andintangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.[293] Twenty-two sites havebeen inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are ofcultural significance.[105] Japanis considered a cultural superpower.[294][295][296][297]Art and architectureMain article: JapaneseartFurtherinformation: Japanese architecture, Japanesegarden, Japanese esthetics, Japanesepainting, and Japanese sculptureThe history of Japanese painting exhibitssynthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas.[298] Theinteraction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints,which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism,had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, mostnotably on post-Impressionism.[298]Japanese architecture is a combination of local and otherinfluences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plasterstructures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs.[299] The Shrinesof Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanesearchitecture.[300] Traditional housing andmany temple buildings seethe use of tatami matsand slidingdoors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoorand outdoor space.[301] Sincethe 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Western modern architecture intoconstruction and design.[302] Itwas not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression onthe international scene, firstly with the work of architects like KenzōTange and then with movements like Metabolism.[303]Literature and philosophyMain articles: Japanese literature, Japanesepoetry, and Japanese philosophyTheearliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and NihonShoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū poetry anthology,all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.[304][305] Inthe early Heian period, the system of phonograms knownas kana (hiragana and katakana)was developed.[306] The Tale of the BambooCutter is considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative.[307] Anaccount of court life is given in ThePillow Book by SeiShōnagon, while TheTale of Genji by MurasakiShikibu is often described as the world's first novel.[308][309]During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople")overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. Thepopularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, revealsthis change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivifiedthe poetic tradition of the Kokinshū withhis haikai (haiku) andwrote the poetic travelogue Okuno Hosomichi.[310] TheMeiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literatureintegrated Western influences. NatsumeSōseki and MoriŌgai were significant novelists in the early 20th century,followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, KafūNagai and, more recently, HarukiMurakami and KenjiNakagami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors – YasunariKawabata (1968) and KenzaburōŌe (1994).[311]Japanese philosophy has historically been a fusion ofboth foreign, particularly Chinese and Western, anduniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy beganabout fourteen centuries ago. Confucian ideals remain evident in the Japaneseconcept of society and the self, and in the organization of thegovernment and the structure of society.[312] Buddhismhas profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics.[313]Performing artsMain articles: Musicof Japan and Theatreof JapanJapanesemusic is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments,such as the koto, wereintroduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popular folk music, with theguitar-like shamisen, dates from the 16thcentury.[314] Westernclassical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part ofJapanese culture.[315] Kumi-daiko (ensembledrumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in NorthAmerica.[316] Popularmusic in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and Europeantrends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop.[317] Karaoke isa significant cultural activity.[318]The four traditional theaters from Japan are noh, kyōgen, kabuki,and bunraku.[319] Nohis one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world.[320]MediaMain articles: Cinemaof Japan, Manga, Anime, and Mediaof JapanAccording to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan,79 percent of Japanese watch television daily.[321] Japanese televisiondramas are viewed both within Japan and internationally;[322] otherpopular shows are in the genres of variety shows,comedy, and news programs.[323] ManyJapanese media franchises havegained considerable global popularity and are among the world's highest-grossing mediafranchises. Japanese newspapers areamong the most circulated in the world as of 2016.[324]Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally.[325] IshirōHonda's Godzilla becamean international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of kaiju films,as well as the longest-running film franchise in history.[326][327] Japanesecomics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have becomepopular worldwide.[328][329] Alarge number of manga series havebecome some of the best-selling comicsseries of all time, rivalling the American comicsindustry.[330] Japaneseanimated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influencedby Japanese manga and have become highly popular globally.[331][332]HolidaysMain articles: Public holidays in Japan and Japanese festivalsOfficially,Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays. Public holidays in Japanare regulated by the Public Holiday Law (国民の祝日に関する法律, Kokuminno Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hōritsu) of 1948.[333] Beginningin 2000, Japan implemented the Happy Monday System,which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a longweekend.[334] Thenational holidays in Japan are NewYear's Day on January 1, Comingof Age Day on the second Monday of January, National Foundation Day onFebruary 11, The Emperor's Birthday onFebruary 23, Vernal Equinox Day onMarch 20 or 21, Shōwa Day on April 29, Constitution MemorialDay on May 3, GreeneryDay on May 4, Children's Day onMay 5, Marine Day on the thirdMonday of July, Mountain Day on August11, Respect for the AgedDay on the third Monday of September, AutumnalEquinox on September 23 or 24, Health and Sports Day onthe second Monday of October, CultureDay on November 3, and Labor Thanksgiving Day onNovember 23.[335]CuisineMain article: JapanesecuisineJapanesecuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties thatuse traditional recipes and local ingredients.[336] Seafoodand Japanese rice or noodles aretraditional staples.[337] Japanesecurry, since its introduction to Japan from BritishIndia, is so widely consumed that it can be termed a nationaldish, alongside ramen and sushi.[338][339] TraditionalJapanese sweets are known as wagashi.[340] Ingredientssuch as red bean paste and mochi areused. More modern-day tastes include green tea ice cream.[341]Popular Japanese beverages include sake, whichis a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made bymultiple fermentation of rice.[342] Beerhas been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century.[343] Greentea is produced in Japan and prepared in forms such as matcha, usedin the Japanese tea ceremony.[344]SportsMain article: Sportin JapanTraditionally, sumo isconsidered Japan's national sport.[345] Japanesemartial arts such as judo and kendo aretaught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum.[346] Baseball isthe most popular sport in the country.[347] Japan'stop professional league, Nippon ProfessionalBaseball (NPB), was established in 1936.[348] Sincethe establishment of the Japan Professional Football League (J.League)in 1992, association football gained a wide following.[349] Thecountry co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup withSouth Korea.[350] Japanhas one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the AsianCup four times,[351] andthe FIFA Women's World Cup in2011.[352] Golfis also popular in Japan.[353]In motorsport, Japaneseautomotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories,with titles and victories in series such as FormulaOne, MotoGP, andthe World RallyChampionship.[354][355][356] Driversfrom Japan have victories at the Indianapolis500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans aswell as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domesticchampionships.[357][358] SuperGT is the most popular national racing series in Japan, while Super Formula isthe top-level domestic open-wheel series.[359] Thecountry hosts major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix.[360]Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 andthe Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998.[361] Thecountry hosted the official 2006 Basketball WorldChampionship[362] andco-hosted the 2023 Basketball WorldChampionship.[363] Tokyohosted the 2020 Summer Olympics in2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice.[364] Thecountry gained the hosting rights for the official Women's VolleyballWorld Championship on five occasions, more than any othercountry.[365] Japanis the most successful Asian RugbyUnion country[366] andhosted the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup.[367] !!! Combined shipping !!!How to get Combined shipping. I do offer combined shipping for multiple purchases. To get discounted shipping for the bundle, you need to use "shopping cart" with ''request total from seller'' option. Please use personal computer. If you have a smartphone or tablet, then the eBay app does not support combined shipping.ShippingShipments are made from Connecticut, United States of America. Shipped with United States Postal Service (USPS) First Class Mail.Buyers have been satisfied with my services and responsiveness. 100% Positive Feedback

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